Please wait a minute...
Studies in the History of Natural Sciences  2021, Vol. 40 Issue (2): 161-174    DOI:
ARTICLES     
A New Discussion on the Co-fusion Process
QIAO Shangxiao, QIAN Wei
Institute of Cultural Heritage and History of Science and Technology, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
Download:   PDF(2804KB)
Export: BibTeX | EndNote (RIS)      

Abstract  On the basis of cast iron smelting technology, an excellent iron and steel metallurgical technology system was established in pre-modern China, among which the co-fusion process was a very important part. This paper reviews historical records related to the co-fusion process, and holds that the purpose of early co-fusion was often to make high-quality swords. The earliest direct record of the co-fusion process is Su You (苏游)'s record of “guan gang (灌钢, co-fusion process)” from the Tang Dynasty. Many detailed records of co-fusion from the Song and Ming dynasties show that this technology had been simplified. At present, there is a lack of understanding of the microstructure characteristics of co-fusion process samples, with some judged to be the result of the co-fusion process when they are not. Considered from a deeper perspective, the co-fusion process can be seen as closely related to the ancient Chinese philosophy of “he (和, harmony)”. Simulation experiments and scientific analysis of the experimental results may provide a new way to further understanding of the co-fusion process.

Key words： History of metallurgy      co-fusion process ( guan gang, 灌钢)      cast iron      crucible steel      technological thought     
Received: 08 March 2020      Published: 27 January 2022
ZTFLH:  N092  
Service
E-mail this article
Add to my bookshelf
Add to citation manager
E-mail Alert
RSS
Articles by authors
QIAO Shangxiao
QIAN Wei
Cite this article:

QIAO Shangxiao, QIAN Wei. A New Discussion on the Co-fusion Process. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2021, 40(2): 161-174.

URL:

http://www.shns.ac.cn/     OR     http://www.shns.ac.cn/Y2021/V40/I2/161

[1] 张子高. 中国化学史稿: 古代之部[M]. 北京: 科学出版社, 1964: 34.
[2] 华觉明. 中国古代金属技术: 铜和铁造就的文明[M]. 郑州: 大象出版社, 1999.
[3] 韩汝玢, 柯俊. 中国科学技术史·矿冶卷[M]. 北京: 科学出版社, 2007.
[4] NEEDHAM J. The Development of Iron and Steel Technology in China[M]. London: The Newcomen Society, 1958: 25-32.
[5] WAGNER D B. Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 11: Ferrous Metallurgy[M]//NEEDHAM J. Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. V. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008: 237-258.
[6] 何堂坤. 关于灌钢的几个问题[C]//中国科学院自然科学史研究所. 科技史文集(十五). 上海: 上海科学技术出版社, 1989: 103-112.
[7] 潜伟. “镔铁”新考[J]. 自然科学史研究, 2007, 26(2): 165-191.
[8] 柯俊, 吴坤仪, 韩汝玢, 等. 河南古代一批铁器的初步研究[J]. 中原文物, 1993(1): 99-107.
[9] 苗长兴. 从河南铁器鉴定论封建社会后期钢铁技术的发展及灌钢技术的初步研究[D]. 北京: 北京科技大学, 1991: 79-86.
[10] 陈建立, 韩汝玢, 万欣, 等. 北票喇嘛洞墓地出土铁器的金相实验研究[J]. 文物, 2001(12): 1, 71-79.
[11] 贾莹, 李新全, 梁志龙. 五女山城高句丽铁器金相学初步探讨[J]. 文物保护与考古科学, 2007, 19(3): 16-25.
[12] 刘海峰, 陈建立, 梅建军, 等. 河北徐水东黑山遗址出土铁器的实验研究[J]. 南方文物, 2013(1): 133-142.
[13] 欧阳询. 艺文类聚[M]. 上海: 上海古籍出版社, 1982.
[14] 何堂坤. 中国古代金属冶炼和加工工程技术史[M]. 太原: 山西教育出版社, 2009.
[15] 萧统. 文选[M]. 北京: 中华书局, 1977: 494-495.
[16] 唐慎微. 重修政和经史证类本草[M]. 北京: 华夏出版社, 1993: 110.
[17] 李延寿. 北史[M]. 北京: 中华书局, 1974: 2940.
[18] 李昉. 文苑英华[M]. 刻本. 1567(明隆庆元年): 576.
[19] 张君房. 云笈七签[M]//四部丛刊. 影印本. 1445(明正统十年): 728.
[20] 胡道静. 梦溪笔谈校证[M]. 上海: 古典文学出版社, 1957: 135.
[21] 王棻. 光绪永嘉县志[M]. 刻本. 1882(清光绪八年): 212.
[22] 潘吉星. 天工开物校注及研究[M]. 成都: 巴蜀书社, 1989: 369.
[23] 田率. 对东汉永寿二年错金钢刀的初步认识[J]. 中国国家博物馆馆刊, 2013(2): 65-72.
[24] PARK J S. Steel making in the ancient Korean Kingdom of Koguryo[J]. Materials characterization, 2005, 54(5): 409-416.
[25] 孙机. 略论百炼钢刀剑及相关问题[J]. 文物, 1990(1): 72-78.
[26] 华觉明, 苏荣誉, 戴吾三, 等. “和”的技术观——从《考工记》到《天工开物》[C]//中国科技典籍研究——第一届中国科技典籍国际会议论文集. 郑州: 大象出版社, 1998: 38-41.
[27] WILLIAMS A. The sword and the crucible: A history of the metallurgy of European swords up to the 16th century[M]. Bostion: Brill, 2012: 8-22.
[28] HOYLAND R, GILMOUR B. Medieval Islamic swords and swordmaking[M]. Oxford: Gibb Memorial Trust, 2006. 35.
[29] WILLIAMS A, GILMOUR B. Persian Steel: The Tanavoli Collection[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000: 41-49.
[30] CRADDOCK P. Cast Iron, Fined Iron, Crucible Steel: Liquid Iron in the Ancient World[M]. London: British Museum Press, 2003: 231-257.
[31] FEUERBACH A, MERKEL J F, GRIFFITHS D R. Production of crucible steel by co-fusion: Archaeometallurgical evidence from the ninth-early tenth century at the site of Merv, Turkmenistan[J]. MRS Online Proceedings Library Archive, 1996, 462: 105.
[32] MERKEL J F, FEUERBACH A, GRIFFITHS D R. Analytical investigation of crucible steel production at Merv, Turkmenistan[J]. Institute for Archaeo-metallurgical studies, 1995, 19: 12-14.
[33] REHREN T, PAPAKHRISTU O. Cutting edge technology-the Ferghana Process of medieval crucible steel smelting[J]. Metalla (Bochum), 2000, 7(2): 55-69.
[34] ALIPOUR R, GLEBA M, REHREN T. Textile templates for ceramic crucibles in early Islamic Akhsiket, Uzbekistan[J]. Archaeological Textiles Newsletter, 2011, 53: 15-27.
[35] PARK J S, REICHERT S. Technological tradition of the Mongol Empire as inferred from bloomery and cast iron objects excavated in Karakorum[J]. Journal of Archaeological Science, 2015, 53(1): 49-60.
[36] PARK J S, Honeychurch W, Chunag A. Novel Micro-Scale Steel-Making from Molten Cast Iron Practised in Medieval Nomadic Communities of East Mongolia[J]. Archaeometry, 2019, 61(1): 83-98.
[37] SMITH C S. A History of Metallography: The Development of Ideas on the Structure of Metals before 1890[M]. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1960: 155-159.
[1] ZHOU Wenli, LUO Shengqiang, MO Lingheng, CHEN Jianli. Smelting Copper with Lead Slag: The Smelting Technology of Lead-Copper Ores from the Chengui Mine in the Qing Dynasty[J]. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2021, 40(2): 135-148.
[2] XIONG Dibing, HUI Fuping. On Changes of Manure in Pre-modern China[J]. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2021, 40(2): 149-160.
[3] ZHOU Sheng. An Interpretation of Eleven Colloquial Bird and Mammal Names in the Guihai Yuheng Zhi by Fan Chengda[J]. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2021, 40(2): 175-183.
[4] QU Zhaohua. Preliminary Research on Zhou Shuxue's Knowledge of Cewang[J]. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2021, 40(2): 194-217.
[5] . [J]. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2021, 40(2): 262-264.
[6] CHEN Jiujin, WANG Rongbin. A Newly Discovered Set of Twelve Constellations of the China Zodiac[J]. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2021, 40(1): 19-36.
[7] LI Zhiliang. The Transmission and Preliminary Development of the Chemical Concept Catalysis in Modern China[J]. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2021, 40(1): 37-48.
[8] ZHAO Yunbo, DENG Jing. Analysis of the Knowledge of the History of Western Science in Gezhi Shuyuan Keyi[J]. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2021, 40(1): 49-61.
[9] FENG Xiang. A Review and Discussion of Plague in Northern China from 1917-1918[J]. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2021, 40(1): 62-76.
[10] ZHANG Jingfei. “Leaving Some Wiggle Room” and “Pursuing Cooperation”: China-US Scientific and Technological Exchanges in Earthquake from 1971 to 1979[J]. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2021, 40(1): 77-90.
[11] HUA Jueming. The Definition and Classification of Traditional Handicrafts[J]. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2021, 40(1): 120-129.
[12] . [J]. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2021, 40(1): 130-144.
[13] ZOU Dahai. New Research on the Junshu,a Branch of Mathematics in the Early Period of Ancient China[J]. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2020, 39(4): 395-424.
[14] LIU Siliang. Dog Sacrifice and the Battle against Epidemics: Recalling Fighting Epidemics Prior to the Qin Dynasty[J]. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2020, 39(4): 425-438.
[15] YANG Huan. A Study on the Moveable Parts Technology of Bronze Chariots Unearthed from the Qin Shihuang Mausoleum[J]. Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, 2020, 39(4): 439-452.